Combustible Coal X'self

Possibly you have ever seen combustible coal by itself either that is in stockpile or mine. This case is commonplace remembers coal is solid fuel where element of the former is plant containing carbon. Coal which pile up sufficiently long in stockpile or flammable mine by itself as result of oxidation process where oxygen steps into cavity's from coal heap, weather effect that is enough hot and accompanied rain and wind hence happened friction of oxygen with coal which pile up which has contained aqueous vapor because rain and temperature. From here happened happened hot friction and oxygen generating fire causing is combustible by itself.

For the reason management stockpile must be paid attention to avoid combustible coal by itself is between it :

1. Condition of stockpile must stay to hill (hill topography with high elevation).

2. Around Stockpile drainage there must be to avoid collected it water as result of rain.

3. From the angle of heap must be paid attention coal heap height; 5 m and coal heap must be compacted by means of weight to avoid existence of oxygen entering into coal heap cavity.

Dozer VS Ford Ranger

This is an accident between yishan TY 120C dozer versus Ford Ranger Cars in sebamban coal mine site, which at the time yishan dozer doing road maintenance work on the road hauling mine stockpile suddenly emerged from behind the black ranger ford car. although the car is running low but the car could not escape because the dozer was suddenly back, while ford ranger in a position to turn right. This incident was so sudden because yishan dozer operator did not see him working backward position and dozer walked slowly. but unlucky ford ranger can not escape when the rear of the dozer up to the position of the front cabin.



a ford ranger driver negligence which in the driving position but holding the mob to find the signal and at position through yishan dozer was working not as a sign of the horn. This is mine if there were no safety department, this condition is found in so many mines Kalimantan region, where his permit is easily obtained through the local KP issued by local government in this district.

Bird Capture Punay Optimis Hope

Punay bird is a bird that is mostly found in sebamban, this bird has blackish green features and if the flight is always straight, never turning turn, the birds This usually rest between bushy shrubs and large trees. if early before the bird is always out of the resting place for food and if the evening before the home looking for a resort.

Is Mr. Hamid from south kalimantan PAGATAN who work everyday to find birds punay for sale, where the activity is conducted punay capture the morning or evening. tool used usually in the form of net size 10 x 5 m, the net is spread by using wood as the net for the game ball voly. These nets are usually placed location-location punay often through to birds feeding or resting place. Punay birds usually will go into the net once flew from its hiding out. once flying this bird usually clustered together around 20 - 80 tails. and if 've flown clusters usually kept straight and imperceptibly into the net trap that has been installed. If you have entered the net, this bird can not get out again, usually the head or the body of this bird into the net.

Mr. Hamid usually get at least 20 fish catches and 120 birds at most 1 day full. These birds are usually brought to the area south kalimantan PAGATAN for sale to restaurants to serve food restaurants, this bird is usually fried or baked. Flavor is almost the same bird with a dove when eaten but it was more tender meat. Price per fish is usually sold at Rp. 4000, - and if the rather large sold for Rp. 5000, - per cow.

Reclamation

Is the return of activities to rehabilitate the damaged environment either caused by mining or other activities. Rehabilitation is done by re-planting or reforestation of areas damaged by the mining activities.

Some key terms associated with the reclamation, namely:

1. Environment
Unity with all things space, power, and living conditions; including man and his behavior that affect the survival peri-life and welfare of human beings and other living things.

2. Mine Environment
Environmental conditions in the mines which include elements such as: humidity, dust, gases, temperature, noise, water, lighting / lighting.

3. AMDAL (environmental impact assessment)
Abbreviations and environmental impact assessment, namely a study of the impact of planned activities on the environment, and the results used for decision-making process.



4. Environmental pollution
Entrance or the inclusion of living creatures, substances, energy, and other components into the environment and changing the order of the environment by human activities or natural processes, resulting in lower environmental quality to a certain level that causes the environment to be less or not work anymore accordance with the intended.

5. Mine Pollution
Entry of pollutant substances in the form of gas, dust, mud, smoke, energy, biota or chemicals into the environment components (air, water, and soil) as a result of mining and mineral processing so that the environmental quality decreases.

6. Water Pollution
Air containing one or more chemicals at concentrations high enough to harm humans, animals, plants, or material.

7. Environmental Inspection
Surveillance of the environment affected by mining activities and processing, MSL. Evaluating the implementation of EIA, and supervise the implementation of environmental control.

8. Health Inspection
Supervision of the factors that may cause health problems due to the work of environmental pollution, a chemical factor (non-particle and particle), physical factors (noise, vibration, temperature), and biological factors (yeast, worms, and other organisms) .

9. Safety Inspection
Supervision of the factors that may cause accidents due to mechanical motion, MSL. Crushed, buried, knock, fall, and stuck.

10. Mine Safety Inspection
Supervision of inspection in the field that includes the factors that affect safety, occupational health and hygiene company.

11. Mine Inspection, Mining Supervision
Supervision of mining activities which include supervision exploitation, mining, mining procedures, treatment, and supervision of work safety.


The impact of that arise with the existence of mining activities:

1. Positive impact

a. Adding revenue
b. Providing employment
c. Come enhance social development, economic and cultural
d. Allowing the transfer of technology
e. Strengthening environmental safety

2. Negative impact

a. Changing the face of morphology and physiology of the land (land use)
b. Damage the environment, because:
*) Soil fertility loss
*) Land to be bald so easily eroded
*) The flora and fauna disturbed so that the ecological damage
*) Polluting the river
*) Incurred dust (air pollution)
*) The use of mining machinery led to noise pollution / vibration and air pollution
c. Can lead to social and economic disparities

Efforts to control negative impacts:

1. Applying the correct way of mining
2. In the employment needs of local labor as optimal as possible

Environmental Management

1. Handling the problem of dust
2. Post-mining land reclamation
3. Mine water management
4. Waste Management

Challenges ahead

1. Mine production capacity grew, especially with the growing ability of equipment (example: Dump truck 350 tons)
2. Underground mining
3. The issue of industrial safety and environmental
4. Social-economic issues and relations with other sectors
5. Demand for skills and competencies of the higher

Marketing

Is an activity for marketing extractive either directly from the mines, stock pile, or washing crusher to consumers.



Marketing Plan:

1. The number, related to: the production capacity of mining, transport capacity of transport infrastructure to the port.

2. Quality, related to: consumer / type of use such as cement, power plant, capable of changing technology products, single products, processed products, etc..

3. Period of time, including: long-term contracts (5 - 10 years), medium-term contracts (2 - 4 years) and short-term contracts (6 - 12 months).

4. Location, associated with: distance, how to transport and distribution, transportation costs.

5. Price includes: the promotion price, competitive price, the price of long-term, short term, price-related profits, so the price must be greater than the cost (investment + operating costs).

6. Competitors and strangers

7. Regulations

Metallurgy

Is a science and technology relating to metals and alloys. The stages metallurgy activities are:

Mineral Processing

Is a valuable mineral separation process from its gangue mechanically produce products that are rich in valuable minerals (concentrate) and tailings (the products generally consist of gangue minerals). Profits made mineral processing:

1. When the distance between the mine to the smelter far, with the processing can reduce transportation costs.

2. Necessary to melt flux (added material) to bind to the gangue minerals Slag and Slag lower melting point. With the rising levels of processing, gangue and flux decreased slightly.

3. Capacity is limited, with the processing, metal derived from the results of more consolidation.

4. Metal Slag missing along with the processing of a few.



Based on the extractive industry and exploitation:

1. Ore / ore (metallic minerals)

a. Native = Forms unsure (Au, Cu)
b. Composition of sulfide = sulfide (PBS Galena, chalcopyrite CuFeS2)
c. Oxide = Composition oxide (hematite Fe2O3)
d. Complex = More than one valuable mineral (Pb, Cu)

2. Fuel (energy minerals)

Coal, oil, manganese

3. Extractive industry (non mallic minerals)

Utilized because of the nature of power, refinement and beauty

Importance of Processing:

1. Now many of the low levels
2. Many materials substitution
3. Environmental problems
4. Recycling (scrap processed)

Success criteria mineral processing:

Characteristic separation: there is no perfect, there are valuable minerals lost in the tailings, and there are incoming concentrate gangue.

To declare the success of a mineral separation process:

1. Recovery shows the separation efficiency


Number of valuable minerals in the concentrate
R = ------------------------------------------------
Number of valuable minerals in the feed (feed)

Cc
R = ----- x 100%
Ff
where:
R = Recovery
C = Consentrate
F = Feed

2. Levels or valuable mineral content in the concentrate


Mass of valuable minerals in the concentrate
Kadar = ------------------------------------------------
Mass concentrates entirely

3. Ratio of concentration (concentration ratio)
The number of feedback processing to produce 1 ton of concentrate.


Massa feedback
NK = -----------------------
Mass concentrations

4. Economic recovery

Various kinds of mineral processing:

1. Kominusi
Liberate valuable minerals

2. Classification of particles based on:
a. Dimension (sifting)
b. The difference and the mass density or velocity falls within the media or the classification of hydraulics

3. Separation
a. Weight type:
*) Media solution weight (HLS, HMS)
*) Vertical flow (jigging)
*) The flow of the film (Shaking table)
b. The difference nature of magnetism
c. Electrical conductivity difference
d. Mineral surface properties, like whether or not to air

4. Dewatering
Thickening, filtering, drying

5. Sampling, material handling

Exploitation

Is an activity best done in a simple (manual) or mechanical, including excavation, loosing, loading and transportation of minerals. Several stages of mining activity in general is:

1. Clearing (clearing)
2. Paring the ground cover (stripping)
3. Excavation extractive (mining)
4. Loading (loading)
5. Transportation (hauling)
6. Shedding (waste dump)

The factors in the selection of mining systems, namely:

1. Spatial nature of ore deposits

a. Size (dimensions: high or particularly thick)
b. Form (tabular, ventricular, massive, irregular)
c. Position (italics, horizontal or vertical)
d. Depth (average value, stripping ratio)

2. Geological and hydrological conditions

a. Mineralogy and Petrology (sulfide or oxide)
b. Chemical composition (the main byproduct, mineral by product)
c. Sedimentary structures (folds, faults, intrusions, discontinuity)
d. Weak field (thick, fracture, cleavage in the mineral, cleats in the coal)
e. Uniformity, alteration, erosion
f. Ground water and hydrology

3. Nature geo mechanic

a. Elastic properties (strength, elastic modulus, poison Value)
b. Behavioral plasticity or visco elastics (flow, creep)
c. State voltage (initial stress, induction)
d. Consolidation, compacting and competent
e. Physical properties of the other (specific contents, voids, porosity, permeability, moisture-free, humid congenital)

4. Economic Consideration

a. Backup (tonnage and levels)
b. Production
c. Mine life
d. Productivity
e. Comparison of the cost of mining for a suitable mining method

5. Technological factors

a. Obtaining mining
b. Dilution (the number of waste generated by ore)
c. Flexibility method to change the conditions
d. Selectivity methods for ore and waste
e. Concentration / distribution of work



Basis in the selection of mining methods are:

1. Stripping Ratio (SR)

That is how much waste (waste soil either O / B and rock side) that must be disposed / removed to obtain 1 ton of ore deposits to the ultimate pit limit.

Number of Waste (m3/ton)
SR = -------------------------------------
Number of Ore (m3/ton)

SR> 1 = The cost of stripping smaller (surface)
SR> 1 = higher stripping costs (undeground)
SR = 1 = Can surface / underground

2. Break Even Stripping Ratio (BESR)

Is the ratio between gross profits at the cost of disposal of O / B

Ore extraction cost
BESR = ---------------------------------------
Cost paring OB

To select the system of mining used the term BESR-1 for the overall open pit stripping ratio.
BESR-1> 1 = surface
BESR-1 <1 = underground
BESR = 2 = Can surface / underground

Then after a specified surface selected, then in order to develop the mining plan each stage of economic terms used stripping ratio (BESR-2).

Recovable value / ton of ore - Production cost / ton of ore
BESR-2 = ------------------------------------------------------------
Stripping cost / ton ore

BESR-2 to determine the maximum number of tons of waste removed to obtain 1 ton of ore for the mining stage is still providing benefits (max allowable stripping ratio) and to set limits on the pit (the pit limit).

The concept of mining the selection of ways:

1. General Concept or depth

a. If the location of the selected shallow ore deposits surface
b. If the location of ore deposits in selected underground

2. The concept of economic / profit

a. Cut-off grade (COG)
b. Break-even stripping ratio (BESR)

Cut-off grade (COG) has two meanings, namely:

1. Levels of mineral deposits that still provide benefits when the sediment is mined (not required mixing mineral deposits).

2. The average levels of the lowest of mineral deposits that still provide benefits when the sediment is mined (required mixing: mixing / blending)

Cut-off grade (COG) will determine the boundaries of reserves that can be calculated by the large reserves because it would result in longer life reserves.

There are 2 things that are considered to be more economical mining efforts are:

1. Mining system in accordance with field conditions

a. Data mineralogist
b. Physical and chemical properties of ore and country rock like hardness, impermeability, etc.

2. Efficiency work

High work efficiency can be done in several ways:

a. Selecting a tool with the number and type of the corresponding
b. Coordination of the tools of good
c. Organization in accordance with these conditions
d. Employees (trained operator)


Mining the existing system in general is:

1. Mine Open (Surface Mining)

Is a mining system in which all work activities directly related to the atmosphere or the air outside. Based on the types of material mined, then open the mine divided into:

a. Open Pit / Open Cut / Open Cast / Open Mine

A mining system is applied to ore deposits containing metals. Example: Nickel Mine in Pomalla, Southeast Sulawesi, mineral Garnierite, Aluminum Mine in Deer Riau Islands, mineral Gibbsite, Boechmite, Diaspore (Bouxite), Copper Mine in Irian Jaya Earthberg, mineral Calcophyrite and Cuprite, Tambang Timah Bangka Pemali minerals in Cassiterite, etc..

b. Quarry

A mining system applied to mineral deposits industry (category C). Examples: marble stone mines in East Java Great Tulung Marble rocks, mines on the island of Buton Asphalt limestone rock asphalt, mines on the island of Karimun Granite granite rocks, etc..

c. Strip Mine

A system that is applied to mining ore deposits are located horizontal or slightly tilted. Example: Coal Mining in Tanjung Enim, South Sumatra, Ombilin Coal Mine in West Sumatra Sawah Lunto Bituminous Coal minerals, etc..

d. Alluvial Mine

A system that is applied to mining alluvial deposits. Example: Tin Ore Mining in Bangka Belitung Cassiterite minerals, Iron Ore Mine in Cilacap mineral Magnetite, Hematite, Ilmenite, etc..

Based on the way mining is done there are several ways disposal O/B is suitable for open mining, namely:
a. Back Filling, which is piled again places the former excavations had taken his ore.

b. Benching System, which is stripping O/B with the system level, this system suitable for the thick cover soil and minerals or a thick layer of coal.

c. Excavator Bucket Multy System, which cover the land disposal place that had been dug coal or place special disposal. This paring way similar to the way of Bucket Wheel Excavators (BWE), suitable for ground cover material is not soft and sticky.

d. Drag Scrapper System, this method is usually immediately followed by extractive decision after closing the land disposed of, but could also land the cover is spent first and then the new dig materials are mined, ground cover suitable for the material soft / loose.

e. Conventional ways, explore a combination of equipment (bulldozers), tool load (track loader) and transport equipment (dump trucks).

2. Underground Mining

A mining system in which all work activities not directly related to the outside air and ground operations conducted under way prior to the entrance of sinks (shaft) or tunnel help (adit). Based on the way supported underground mines are divided into:

a. For Coal
*) Longwall Methode, divided by 2 is the way forward (advancing) and the way forward (retreating)
*) Room and Pillar Methode

b. To precipitate Ore / Metal
*) Open Stope Methode, such as underground gloryhole, gophering, shrinkage stopping, sublevel stopping
*) Supported Methode, such as cut and fill, stull stopping, shrink stopping and full
*) Caving Methode, such as top slicing, sub-level caving, block caving


Comparison between 2 methods of mining are:
Open Mine Underground Mine

1. Development less
Shaft, other openings
2. Stripping O / B a lot of coal mined from the opening towards the coal layer
3. Many locations for the dumping areas are no
4. Disturbances in the stability of slopes, subsidence resulted in the installation above, poisonous gas
5. Noise, dust pollution in the affected area around the openings
6. Keep good work safety ventilation and lighting
7. The use of more free Not free
8. Productivity is influenced by the climate more in temperature rise
9. The depth of excavation is restricted SR cost O / B is not limited
10. Treatment supported reclamation costs

How to choose the best one, there are 2 things to note are:
1. The depth of sediment
a. Deposition of gold cikotok 350 m (underground mining)
b. Deposits of copper at Bingham Utah, USA (strip mine)

2. Economic considerations (beneficial or not)
The objective is to obtain maximum benefit to the mining recovery and may also be relatively safe for workers

The existence of good mining system will improve the mining recovery (MR).
MR = Comparison of sediment deposition successfully mined with an estimated according to the calculation of exploration

Why should take maximum advantage of the mining business:

Growth of a deposition is very slow / old, when compared with the speed of acquisition, therefore, in economics or wasting said unrenewable dissipation of assets or capital to do so it must be made to take the ore for high coat.

In general, if the ore that remains difficult to get it back, so the parts are left only limited to the parts that will cost high more expensive, for example gold mine cikotok/cirotan gold with levels = 9.00 g/ton was not mined.

Thus the mining business there is anything contradictory in selecting mining systems, namely:

1. With a safe, cost-expensive but not a great benefit
2. Less safe, not cost so much and benefit greatly

Development

Is a preparatory activities for mining and transportation, among others include making holes in the opening direction and sediment that have been there, a process that included here are all the necessary stages of a mine into full production scheduling such as preparation of mining equipment, hauling road construction , infrastructure, construction, stockpile, ports, etc..

Factors that influence the preparation of mining jobs are:

1. Location factors
2. Geological and natural factors such as topography, size, shape, depth of ore, Mineralogy, petrographic, structure, genesa extractive, rock strength, etc.
3. Social factors, economics, politics, environment: demographics, local skills, financial, marketing, etc.

An important stage in the preparation work the mine open pit mining are:

1. Initiation reclamation plan as part of the requirements of environmental impact
2. Determination of land landfills shoots (top soil) and waste
3. Determination of ground cover peeling to get the road into the sediment

Mine Design

Is an activity to plan and design a mine based on a feasibility study and final results of mineral deposits exploration. According to HL. Hartman in the introductory mining engineering in 1987, there are three factors at the mine design open pit planning, namely:

1. Nature and geological factors: hydrology conditions, sediment type seeds, metallurgy topography and character of the ore and rock

2. Economic factors: the level of ore deposits, the amount of ore deposits, SR, COG, operating costs, investment costs, benefits desired, the average production and market conditions

3. Technical factors: equipment, slope, pit, high-level, grade roads, boundaries and limits pit KP

Flow diagram Mine Planning:





DESIGN AND PLANNING STAGES OF MINE

1. Validation data (geology, topography, Total Data)
2. Geological model à (Geological Resources, Forms Reserves, Quality, etc..)
3. Cut of Grade / Optimum Pit Limit
4. Determination of mining methods
5. Making mine & Design Layout
6. Calculation Block Backup
7. Creation Production Schedule
8. Selection Tools and equipment type "Suitable"
9. Determination Order (sequence) Mine
10. Determination of Drainage System
11. Environmental Analysis and Rehabilitation Plan

GEOLOGICAL DATA AND MODEL

1. Geological Data

a. Field Topography
b. Drilling Data
c. Structure Geology

2. Geological Model

a. Geological cross section (Section)
b. Structure map, thickness and quality (2 Dimension)
c. Quality Model (3 Dimension)

3. Geo technical Data

a. Density of rocks (Wet And Dry)
b. Angle Slide In
c. Cohesion
d. Geology Layer Structure (example: Joint)
4. Slope Stability

Optimization:

a. High Bench
b. Slope Slope: Overall and Individual Slope Slope
c. Safety Factor
d. Geo technical data

5. Model Hydrology & Geo hydrology

a. Rainfall (water surface)
b. Permeability rocks
d. Catchment Area
e. Ground water (ground water)

MINING LIMITS DETERMINATION

a. Optimum stripping ratio
b. Limit mine
c. Limit waste dump
d. Other Limits: rivers, roads, etc.

SELECTION TOOLS & MINING METHOD

1. Parameter selection tool:

a. Soil conditions and assistance
b. Production target
c. Material characteristics
d. Thickness and slope of the coal / ore
e. Distance transport
f. Topography
g. Weather

2. Parameters mining methods:

a. Dimensional work location
b. Sequence mining (Mine sequencing)
c. Production Plan (Production scheduling)
d. The width of the street / Ramp
e. Grade road
f. Initial location of mining
g. Management disposal (In and Out Pit dumping system)

LAYOUT & DESIGN MINE

a. Design pit
b. Design ramp
c. Design disposal
d. Design road
e. Drainage
f. Etc.

MINE PLANNING

1. Production:
a. Production target
b. Productivity
c. Number of tools

2. Hours:
a. Work calendar
b. Shift work
c. Total hours of work a year

MINE DRAINAGE

a. Bench and Drainage Sump
b. Selection pump
c. Processing flow of water
d. Mud disposal

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND REHABILITATION

a. Top soil stockpiling
b. Rehabilitation Plan
c. Waste water handling

Objectives to be achieved in the mine planning are:

1. Mine the ore body so that the unity of production costs are minimal heavy metals

2. Seeking good run mining operations (wide road and the entrance)

3. Strive always available outcrop ore to prevent exploration data errors

4. Always ready to change the strip without the deployment of equipment, personnel, production schedule

5. Running logical operations since the early schedule (training personnel, equipment, logistics, etc.). This is to minimize the risk of delays in a positive cash flow position.

6. Maximizing the pit slope designs that minimize the possibility of kelongsoran

7. Strive to achieve the economic benefits of natural production conditions and seek alternative COG


Notes from Various Sources Mine Design Mine

Feasibility Study

Is an activity to calculate and consider a mined mineral deposits and cultivated profitably. Before the planning and design activities necessary mining activity that presents a feasibility study some information:

1. Introduction, summary, notions

2. General: location, climate, topography history, ownership, land status, transportation, etc.

3. Environmental problems: the conditions present, the standard, problems that need to be protected, land reclamation, special study, informed consent.

4. Geological factors: the presence of sediment, genesa, structure, Mineralogy and petrographic.

5. Extractive reserves: the procedure of exploration, discovery of minerals, calculation of reserves, and the average levels.

6. Mine planning: development, and exploitation

7. Processing: place the necessary facilities

8. Building surface: the location and construction planning

9. Supporting facilities: electricity, water supply, driveway, location of waste land, housing, etc.

10. Employees: labor and staff

11. Marketing: Economic survey of the demand and supply, the price of long-term contracts, land replacement, etc.

12. Cost: The estimated cost of development and exploitation costs both direct and indirect total costs, the cost of processing, transportation, consolidation, etc.

13. Economic evaluation: an evaluation of reserves, reserves and clarification of natural resources

14. Projected benefits: calculation of the minimum profit (margin) which is based on COG and the price range





Mine planning phase are:

1. Data collection, data processing and supporting major
2. Mine planning
3. Supporting mine planning

Technical benchmarks are:

1. The spread of geology (Stratigraphy, structure, etc.)
2. Quality extractive (distribution levels, levels which mined, COG, blending)
3. Barring geo technical / geo mechanic (strong press, shear strength, tensile strength)
4. Barring hydrology, geo hydrology (ground water, permeability)
5. Barring topography (slope steepness)
6. Barrier deposition geometry (thickness, depth, distance and spatial)
7. Barring the way of mining and equipment used
8. Management (project, planning, operations)
9. Mining technology, processing, and utilization

Environmental benchmarks:

1. Initial state
2. Conditions during mining
3. Post-mining conditions
4. Multiflier effect of the project
5. Value added
6. Environmental Management

Economics benchmarks:

1. The value of assets owned
2. Availability of markets (distance, / location, scale of operations, quantity, quality specifications, price, contract period, competitors, etc.
3. Break even point
4. Product Price
5. Operating costs
6. Investment costs
7. Preparation of investment funds
8. And management of business entities
9. Profit and profitability
10. Risks and uncertainties

Ultimate benchmark designs (excavation, stockpiling):

1. Location,
2. Geometry ultimate (limit of excavation, landfill boundaries, shape)
3. Sequence mining / landfill
4. Overall production plan (quantity, quality, ratio of peeled, schedules, mine life)
5. Plan flow chart
6. Layout plan
7. Interior plan mine
8. Plan tool
9. Plan road transport
10. Plan draining

Draft Mining Sector:

1. Mine geometry sectoral / each 5-year blocks (limit, shape, etc.)
2. Backup mining sectoral
3. The order of excavation / landfill sectoral
4. Planned production (quantity, quality, ratio of peeled, schedule)

Investment Plan:

1. Feasibility study of techno-enviro-economic (business feasibility of the mine)
2. Finding the source of investment funds
a. Own capital
b. Capital loans
c. Bank, the banking system, the technical term in the 3R and the 5C credit lending
*) Return (interest on loans)
*) Repayment capacity (ability to return)
*) Risk bearing ability (risk factors)
*) Character, capacity, capital, collateral, and the condition (5C)
d. Capital markets

Marketing Plan:

1. The number, related to: the production capacity of mining, transport capacity of transport infrastructure to the port
2. Quality, related to: consumer / type of use such as cement, power plant, capable of changing technology products, single products, processed products, etc..
3. Period of time, including: long-term contracts (5 - 10 years), medium-term contracts (2 - 4 years) and short-term contracts (6 - 12 months)
4. Location, associated with: distance, how to transport and distribution, transportation costs
5. Price includes: the promotion price, competitive price, the price of long-term, short term, price-related profits, so the price must be greater than the cost (investment + operating costs)
6. Competitors and strangers
7. Regulations

Management of Exploration Activities

In general the management of exploration activities have included the following among others:

1. Types of activities.
2. Field operations.
3. Support services.
4. Technical services, logistics, and administration.
5. Coordination, communication, and supervision.
6. Analysis and exploration data integration.
7. Decision-making.



Management theory can be applied in exploration activities. In general, in a program that leads to the determination of exploration must begin with a hypothesis of work, which is a re-election plans facts from several observations and interpretations with the speculation of the expenditure.



Conditions for the formulation of the hypothesis of an invention (in this case mineral deposits) are as follows:

1. Knowledge of staff (workers) are both about the state / control of a sediment geology,
2. Having insight and imagination,
3. Have the talent intuition,
4. Have the courage,
5. Have beliefs about the assessment of hypotheses,
6. The ability to stand alone.

To achieve success in exploration, the sequences that need to be considered by the (agency) management of exploration include:

1. Determination of long-term goals that are realistic and not subjective,
2. Delegation of responsibilities to each individual / team,
3. Creation of a productive working atmosphere so as to stimulate the emergence of innovations and new discoveries,
4. Assurance of good communication, both from the center of emptiness, or in a field team working,
5. Emphasis and a good proportion of resource management (human, money, and time),
6. Used in the review of the decision before deciding / making a final decision.

Exploration Activity

Things to Look For In Exploration Activities

1. Exploration Objectives

Objectives include exploration activities to determine:

a. Localize a mineral deposit:
*) Preliminary exploration / prospecting and
*) Exploration detail

b. Deposition / ore sought: sulfide, tin, bauxite, nickel, gold / silver, oil / natural gas, sediment class C, etc..

c. The nature of soil and rock:
*) For the mining,
*) For the construction,
*) Etc..

2. Literature Study

Literature study conducted to obtain data about:

a. Base map is available / not yet.

b. Geological map / topography (satellite, air, land).

c. Regional Analysis:
*) History,
*) Structure / tectonics, and
*) Morphology.

d. Reports of previous investigations.

e. The theories and methods of the existing field.

f. Geography:
*) Accomplished the area (village / town nearby, transportation),
*) Climate / season (weather, rainfall / floods),
*) The nature of wind, sea conditions, waves, etc..,
*) Plants, animals, and
*) Communication.

g. Cultural and social mores:
*) The nature of the population,
*) Habit,
*) The knowledge / education,
*) Livelihoods, etc..

h. Legal:
*) Ownership of land,
*) In damages, and
*) Licensing.



3. Selection Method

Exploration methods used generally grouped into three, namely:

a. Indirect way:
*) Geophysical and
*) Geochemistry.

b. Direct:
*) Direct Mapping and
*) Drilling.

c. Combined direct and indirect.



4. Selection Tools
Selection tool depends on the following things:
a. The method chosen,
b. Field conditions,
c. Time,
d. Tools available,
e. Costs, and
f. The desired accuracy.

5. Selection Team Members / Experts

A team of exploration activities generally consist of:
a. Geologist,
b. Geophysicist,
c. Mining geologist,
d. Expert geochemistry,
e. Equipment operator,
f. etc.

6. Plan Cost

Plan costs are ripe to be considered as related to the value investment done, and generally covers the cost of land clearing for the base camp, the preparation of facilities and infrastructure (equipment), operational costs for surveys, remuneration (payroll), accommodation and logistical requirements, and taxes.

7. Timing

Time activities should also be determined accurately, for example adapted to local climatic conditions and trends of political, economic or investment advice then. Will not allow an exploration activities carried out in an area that was there a war or security disturbances.

8. Preparation Equipment / Provisions

a. Basic Map,

b. Surveying Equipment / Measure Or Gps (Global Positioning System),

c. Work Tool:
*) Geophysical equipment
*) Compass
*) Sampling tool
*) Meter
*) Hammer
*) The bag sample
*) Altimeter
*) Geochemical kit
*) Drilled Tools
*) Etc.
d. Stationery,

e. Means of communication,

f. Everyday needs (food, sleep, shower, etc..), And

g. Medicine.

Once on the field (location), then the things that must be considered (provided) are:

a. Make a base camp,

b. Check equipment / supplies,

c. Doing a quick survey in the investigation, to determine the steps further, and

d. Evaluate and plan changes in accordance with the actual situation (if necessary).

Exploration Program

In order for exploration could be carried out efficiently, economically, and the right target, it is necessary to plan based on the principles and basic concepts of exploration before exploration program was implemented.

The principles (concept) basic exploration include:

a. Exploration target

*) Type of mineral (quality specification) and
*) Search geological models of appropriate

b. Modeling exploration

*) Using a regional geological model for the selection of exploration target areas,
*) Determining the local geological model based on field conditions, and describing the geological clues that will be used, and
*) Determination of exploration methods to be implemented in accordance with geological clues obtained.





In addition, the planning of exploration programs must meet the basic rules of economic and design, namely:

a. Effective; the use of tools, individuals, and methods must comply with the state geological deposits sought.

b. Efficient; by using the basic principles of economics, namely the lowest possible cost to obtain the results as much as possible.

c. Cost-beneficial; results obtained can bankable.
Regional geological model can be learned through one concept that is genesa extractive Mendala Metalogenik, which is related to or associated source rocks rocks, geological processes (tectonic, sedimentation), and when the formation of mineral deposits.

Some examples of exploration planning activities:

1. Plan mapping, including;
*) Path planning,
*) Planning support people, which is based on regional geological conditions.

2. Plan geophysical and geochemical survey, include;
*) Path planning,
*) Planning distance / interval data acquisition (sampling / data records), which is based on the general state of ore body models.

3. Planning through the creation trenching sampling test, test sinks, exploration drilling, which includes:
*) Number of paritan test, test sinks, exploration drilling point,
*) Interval / spacing between trenching (location),
*) The depth / length sinks / trenching, the depth of the drill hole,
*) Security (employment and environment),
*) Interval / sampling methods, and
*) Labor force
based on the projection / interpretation of the distribution of sediment in the surface outcrop.

4. Core drilling plans, including:
*) Target ore body to be pierced,
*) Location (impact on drilling accomplished to the point and transfer (moving) equipment),
*) The condition of the location (impact on water resources, security),
*) The depth of each hole,
*) Type device that will be used, including specifications,
*) Number of labor,
*) Transportation equipment, and
*) Number (long) core box.

As far as possible, in each of those plans have included the number / large budget needed. In addition, the basic principle in determining the distance as far as possible meets several other factors, such as:

1. Grid density (interval / distance) between points of observation. The more detailed the work the smaller the grid density (interval / distance) the meeting.

2. Terms of grouping the calculated reserve / deposits. Examples of coal; requirements for classification of measured distance (measured) £ 400 m between points of observation.
Each stage / process of exploration must be able to meet the management strategy of a project / job exploration, among others:

1. Minimize the risk of loss,

2. Allows termination of activities before the increase in the next stage if the assessed results obtained are not profitable

3. Each stage can localize (increase / decrease) the target area so that the probability of a greater benefit, and

4. Budgeting allows exploration costs per each stage to assist in decision making.

Exploration Methode

In the selection methods to be used, must be adjusted to the type of sediment to be searched. The work done at each stage of exploration and the selection methods in general can be described as shown in Table.

Table Stages exploration and methods used in accordance with the mineral deposits are found



Detailed exploration
Obtaining systematic samples with: core drilling, test wells or with geophysical logging

Stages of Exploration Activities

Mineral exploration is not only a public inquiry after the activity had a positive finding signs of extractive Lay, but the notion that exploration refers to the entire sequence of the work group consisting of:

1. Review (reconnaissance or prospecting or public inquiry) with the aim to find prospects,
2. Prospects of economic assessment has been found, and
3. The tasks set additional ore in a mine

In Indonesia where the agency name, or division of a company's organization, government agencies and research to use the term exploration activities covering from finding prospects to determine the amount of mineral reserves. Conversely there are some countries, like France and the Soviet Union (before the country broke up) who use the term exploration to find activities for prospecting mineralization and economic assessment of prospects (Peters, 1978). Further exploration of mineral terms used in this book means that the entire sequence of events began to search for the location of mineralization to determine the insitu reserve mineralization findings. Further exploration of mineral terms used in this book means that the entire sequence of activities from finding the location of mineralization to determine insitu reserves.



Phasing in Planning Exploration Activities

1. Exploration Stage Introduction

According to White (1997), in this preliminary stage of exploration required level of accuracy is still small so that the maps used in the preliminary exploration is also a small-scale 1: 50,000 to 1: 25,000. The steps undertaken in this phase are:

a. Literature Review

In this phase, before choosing the locations of exploration carried out a study of data and maps of existing (from previous surveys), old records, reports findings, etc., and then selected the area to be surveyed. After site selection is determined the next step, the study geological factors of regional and provincial metallographic from regional geological maps is very important to choose exploration area, because the formation of mineral deposits is influenced and depends on the geologic processes that have occurred, and the signs can be seen in the field.

b. Surveying And Mapping

If the base map (topographic map) of the exploration area is available, then the survey and mapping of outcrop (outcrop) or other geological phenomena can already begun (topographic map scale 1: 50,000 or 1: 25,000). But if no, it is necessary to be done first topographic mapping. If the area has no geological map, then this is very beneficial, because the survey can be directed to look for signs of sediment are looking for (outcrop), complete the geological map and take samples from the outcrop-important outcrop.

Apart from rock outcrop outcrop-extractive carrier or coal (direct target), which should also pay attention to the changes / rock boundary, the orientation of sedimentary rock layers (stance and slope), the orientation of faults and other signs. Important things should be plotted on a base map with the help of tools such as compass geology, inklinometer, altimeter, and natural signs such as hills, valleys, river bend, roads, villages, etc.. Thus the geological maps can be completed or made new (map outcrop).

The signs that have been plotted on the map are then combined and made vertical section or distribution model (geological model). With hepatic geological model is then designed by taking random samples, making the well test (test pit), it trenching, and if necessary be done drilling. These locations should then be plotted correctly on the map (with the help of measuring instruments, theodolite, BTM, etc..).

From this activity will produce the geological model, the sediment distribution model, description of geological reserves, the early levels, etc.. used to determine whether the area in question survey gives a good hope (prospects) or not. If the area has good prospects will be forwarded to the next exploration phase.


2. Exploration Stage Details

After the preliminary exploration stage is known that there are reserves that have good prospects, then continues with the exploration stage of detail (White, 1997). The main activities in this phase is sampling with a closer distance (meeting), namely by extending the test wells or drill holes to obtain more precise data about the distribution and thickness of the reserve (reserve volume), distribution of content / quality of horizontally or upright. Dense sampling of the produced reserves calculated by the measured classification, with a small error (<20%), and thus made the mine planning to be more thorough and risks can be avoided.

Knowledge or more accurate data about the depth, thickness, slope, and the spread of reserves in 3-dimensions (length-thick) as well as data on the strength of rock sampling, ground water conditions, and the distribution of structures (if any) will greatly facilitate the progress of planning mines, width / size of the openings or slope mines. It is also important to plan the production of monthly / annual and election of mining equipment and other aid priorities.

3. Feasibility Study

At this stage made plan production, plan mine development, mining methods, planning tools and mining investment plan. By doing economic analysis based on the model, the production cost of sales and marketing it can be known whether extractive reserves can be mined concerned with the beneficial or not.

Exploration

Is the next activity after the discovery of valuable mineral deposits which include activities and get to know the size, shape, position, average levels and reserves of the mineral deposits.



Stages in the work of exploration:

1. General Investigations

a. Study Library
*) State of the regional geology
*) State of tectonic
*) State setting paleogeography
*) Limits the area of work

b. Checking field
*) Search outcrop of rock and coal
*) Taking the example of rock and coal

2. Preliminary investigation

a. Mapping regions
*) Mapping the topography
*) Aerial mapping

b. Interpretation of the geological situation
*) Stratigraphy of coal position
*) The structure of geology

c. Drilling
*) Correlation
*) The results of the calculation of reserves
*) Spare geometry
*) Estimated quality



3. Investigation Details

a. Drilling
*) Geometry more closely coal deposits and reserve calculations
*) Anomaly geology (faults)
*) The quality of coal (and the nature of the laboratory analysis of coal)

b. Geophysics
*) Stratigraphy of coal position more closely
*) The structure of geology
*) The form of coal deposits

c. Determination of mining method

4. Commercial exploration program

Prospekting

An investigation activities, search and discovery of mineral deposits or securities that are the early stages of exploration in an area based on geology, geochemistry and geophysics. In general, the flow of events starts with the mining industry which prospecting stage followed by exploration. This stage has a very high risk, because the risks associated with geology. On entering the stage of pre-feasibility study (pre-feasibility study) until the stage of feasibility studies, the risk of failure began to be reduced.

Exploration activities according to Law No.. 1967 of 11 years mining geology investigation, which means an application of the science of geology to mining operations. The basis of a mining operation is geologic and economic certainty about the existence of a quantity (tonnage or volume) minerals, called the reserve.



Certainty in terms of geology, among other things with regard to:

1. The diversity of minerals in extractive,
2. Ore mineral content changes due to geological structure or the environment, and
3. Geological possibility that a number of other reserves in place around Lay known.



While economic certainty, which affect the cost of data mining, among others determined by the dimensions of Lay and minerals beneath the surface-surface, variations in quantity over quality, diversity of technical nature and properties of rock-soil water flow, and the carrying capacity of the waste rock. Natural resource commodities in general and in particular mineral resource commodities, is the real goods that can meet market demand quickly and can be measured by the value of money.

While ore or mineral reserves are not the real stuff, though in practice the backup information can be traded, and do not include commodity mineral resources. After the mineral resources derived from its natural position, it becomes commodity mineral resource. Examples of mineral resource commodities such as aluminum is a metal, clean coal has been mined.

In practice, as mentioned in the exploration of the 1967 Act was preceded by the existence of an activity known as the General Investigation. This public inquiry as the investigation mentioned in the general geological or geophysical, on land, water, and from the air, all things in order to make a general geological map or assign any hint of minerals in general. Put the existence of minerals specified in the general investigation examined more closely in the exploration stage.

Coal Briquette

Coal briquette manufacturing technology from coal powder that can cause difficulties at the time of transport was already mostly done in some countries. Things that encourage the use of briquettes for small industry communities and Indonesia, among others:

1. Potential coal Indonesia is very large
2. Most of the population in Indonesia live in rural
3. Can be implemented with simple technology, with low investment
4. Indonesian coal fragile and high caloric value
5. Utilizing coal powder that does not use difficult transported, to be more useful
6. The existence of coal deposits with limited reserves (10 million tons) that can be used in small scale for the surrounding area
7. Government policies to reduce oil consumption and fuel wood

A. Coal briquette Engineering

a. The nature of good briquettes
1. No smoking and no smell at the time of combustion
2. Have certain powers that are not easily broken when appointed and removable
3. Combustion temperature has a fixed (± 3500C) in a period of time long enough (8-10 hours)
4. After combustion still has a certain strength so it is easy to remove from the stove to cook
5. The combustion gases do not contain carbon monoxide gas high

b. Type briquettes
Known briquettes are 2 types:

1. Type yontan (cylinder) for household use
This type is more known and popular, called yontan, a local name cylindrical with diameters of 150 mm, height 142 mm, weight 3.5 kg and has as many holes 22 holes

2. Type egg for industry and households
This type is also used to fuel a small industry such as for burning lime, bricks, tiles, pottery, blacksmith and so on, but also for household use. This type of width 32-39 mm long, 46-58 mm and 20-24 mm thick

c. Technical production
Yontan briquette-making process is quite simple. Coal powder (5 mm) were given water (10%) is pressed by press briquette machine at 120 kg/cm2 pressure so that the briquettes obtained. To type eggs have added molasses (7%) and on roll-type briquette machine

d. Parameters in the manufacture of briquettes
Some of the parameters in the manufacture of briquettes are as follows:
1. Grain size of coal
2. Pressure machine at the time briquette
3. Water content contained in coal
Some experience with a strong briquette press> 6 kg/cm2 quite strong and not easily broken at the time was taken, transported and lifted.

e. Combustion characteristics
The nature of combustion is very important as well depending on the nature of coal. These briquettes combustion characteristics (long and the temperature of combustion) depends also from the amount of burning air (water supply) and the calorific value of coal. The greater the air shorter burned briquettes burn longer and higher calorific value of coal briquettes made longer burning time. The greater the air given (with open air cooking stoves) shorter time briquette combustion temperature obtained despite a higher maximum.

B. Briquette Making Of Coal
Examples of pulverized coal to the size of 5 mm, then added clay (20%) as a binder and water 10%. Analysis of coal samples as follows:
Table of chemical analysis of coal samples korea

Sample properties
Korean
8.19 atoms
39.5
fixed carbon
50.24
53.70
calorific value
7160
4570
S (sulfur)
0.47
0.29
moisture 1.91
3.70
volatile matter 39.66
3.20
subbitumine class
anthracite

Addition of clay is intended to gain strength and size relative to the levels brought closer and briquette ash yontan Korean.

a. Strong press
From the result of the emphasis with the same engine briquette obtained the following data:
Confinement Material Clay
Strong Press (kg/cm2
20%
7.5
30%
10.2

The results provide strong data that the press here are good enough (> 6 kg/cm2)

b. Combustion characteristics
From the result of combustion data obtained as follows:
1. Enough smoky and pungent
2. The highest combustion temperature is slightly higher than the Korean briquettes 6500C - 7000C (6000C Korean briquettes
3. Long time at a temperature of 3500C combustion was much shorter ± 2.5 hours, was briquettes Korean 8 hours

By setting the pipe smaller air openings are expected to be longer burning time.
Note: the addition of clay can absorb the smell of tar and enhance the quality of briquettes, although it can reduce the value of calorie.
We recommend that you use coal with high ash

c. Eliminate smoke and odor
Experiment to reduce / eliminate smoke and the smell of coal briquettes has been done by reducing the volatile matter. This can be done by carbonization of coal at low temperatures and it worked well. Only problem burning time of coal briquettes are still relatively short at around ± 4 hours.

(Source: Coal & Peat, Ir. Sukandarrumidi, MSc. Phd)

Peat

Lowland peat sediments in Indonesia has been known to be very widely spreading in accordance with the low-lying stretch of coast, but until now reserve estimates are still too rough. Shell (1983) estimates that thick peat deposits of more than 1 m which can be used as energy material includes the lowlands more than 17 million hectare spread in Sumatra, Kalimantan and Irian Jaya. Since the last decades of this new idea arose to build a remote area. This was confirmed by Euro consult report (1984) which among others stated that in the long run and the availability of consumer, peat mining industry as a material for generating electricity in remote areas of Indonesia will be able to compete with the power plant fuel.

1. Peat composition

Peat is the remains of plants that have been heaps of dead and later elaborated by anaerobic and aerobic bacteria into the more stable component. Apart from organic substances that form peat inorganic substances are also found in small quantities.

Peat forming in this environment is always in a state of saturated water (more than 90%). Peat-forming organic substance similar to plant in a different comparison rate in accordance with bitumen (time or resin), humus and others. The composition of organic substances is unstable depending on the process of decay, such as cellulose decomposition at early (H1-H2) as much as 15-20%, but at the level of advanced decay (H9-H10) almost does not exist.

In contrast to the cellulose in humus decomposition rate is 0-15% early, while the peat that has experienced higher weathering (H9-H10) reached 50-60%. Forming elements peat consists mainly of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N) and oxygen (O). in addition there are also the main elements of the other elements of Al, Si, S, P, Ca, etc. in other forms bound, the peat decomposition rate would increase levels of carbon (C) and lower oxygen (O).

Based on the growing environmental and peat forming in Indonesia can be divided into 2 types namely:

a. Ombrogenus the peat water content comes only from the rain, this type of peat is formed in an environment where the precipitation-forming plant that grows only during his lifetime from the rain, so the ash content is original (inherent) from 

the plant itself.

b. Topogenus the peat water content derived from surface water. This type of peat was deposited from the rest of the plants that grew during his lifetime from the influence of ground water, so the levels are influenced by elements of the ash carried by the water surface.

Topogenus peat areas is more useful to agricultural land area compared with peat peat ombrogenus because topogenus contain relatively more nutrients. Both types of peat is in essence a rather difficult megaskropis be defined as a completely decay.peat composition stage of the process determining the quality and usefulness are affected by several factors such as substance prganik content, ash, bulk density, wood content, etc.

Fisher (in Supraptohardjo & Driessen, 1967) makes the classification of peat is more focused on the interests of agricultural land, which is divided peat based soil fertility as follows:

a. Eutropik (fertile)

b. Mesotropik (was)

c. Oligotropik (poor)

Furthermore also argued that Indonesia's peat lands of the fertile until bergam poor. Final classification is more emphasis on the level of maturity or the level of decomposition (in Supraptohardjo & Driessen, 1967), namely:

a. Saprik (terombak more than 66%)

b. Hemik (terombak 33-66%)

c. Fibrik (terombak less than 33%)

There is also a classification of peat decomposition by not seeing it is based on forming parent materials (Backman et al, 1969, in Endang Suarka 1988), namely:

a. Peat deposits, a mixture of water lily, herb pond, plangton, etc.

b. Teridiri fibrous peat of various kinds of grass, moss, sphagnum, etc.

c. Kayuan peat consists of trees and konifera

In addition to the above division of peat also classified as:

a. Topogen the peat peat eutropik or mesotropik

b. Ombrogen the peat peat oligotropik

2. Peat As Fuel

Some of the reasons that support the use of peat for fuel in Indonesia, among others:

a. Peat is available in a number of large reserves in the area large enough

b. Land that has been taken gambutnya can be used for agricultural land

c. Mining and processing of peat for fuel absorb labor

d. In addition to providing energy can also directly or indirectly have a good impact on the environment

3. Regional Distribution of Peat

 The amount of peat areas in the world estimated at 420 million hectare, or maybe more than 500 million hectare. There peat sediments around the world who meet the conditions that allow formation of a cold climate and nature are and have high precipitation and low evaporation (Kalmari, 1982 in Endang Suarka 1988). Supraptohardjo; Driessen (1976 in Endang Suarka 1988) mentions that in the dense forest areas with high rainfall and lack of groundwater influence will shape ombrogen peat, while peat formation topogen affected groundwater. Indonesia is estimated to have reserves of peat covering 17 million ha. 

These numbers make Indonesia as the country has the fourth largest peat reserves of the world after Canada's 170 million ha, 150 million ha Russian, United States 40 million ha. Supraptohardjo & Driessen (1976 in Endang Suarka 1988) describe the area of peatland in Indonesia reached 16 million ha over the details:

a. East coast of Sumatra, 9.7 million ha

b. Kalimantan 6.3 million ha

c. Others 1.3 million ha

The forecast was almost equal to the estimated Andrieese (1974) which states that the eastern region wither bio geography of lowland peat that covers 18 million ha, mainly located in the east coast of Sumatra, West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, Sarawak and the northern coast of Brunei . Peat in the area is largely peat ombrogenous.

Source: Coal and Peat, Ir. Sukandarrumdi, MSc, PhD

Usage of Coal In Cement Industry

Energy is essential requirement in industry. In industry cement, energy temperature is most important requirement, to operate for combustion in rotary kiln.

1. Technical Description About Fuel Type
Operation of Combustion at rotary kiln is step that is most critical in every industry cement, either evaluated technically and also economically. operation of Combustion in rotary kiln determines operation at other units, and requires usage of energy temperature assessing it can reach 30% from entirety operating expenses. Productivity from industry cement generally determined by the rotary kiln unit productivity. While rotary kiln productivity generally determined by run factor, which generally determined by resilience of the fire proof stone layer.

Main aspect of which very influential to resilience of flame resistant stone layer and efficiency operation of combustion in rotary kiln, be in fuel type used. For both purpose of the is required operation of combustion which can yield stable flame and temperature that is as high as possible.

Usage of fuel with certain coal type in operating combustion in rotary kiln can yield different productivity if compared to usage of other type fuel. For example operation of combustion with coal fuel will require consumption of association temperature of product larger ones, compared to usage of oil fuel or gas fuel. This thing is caused existence of difference of operation pattern of combustion from third of the fuel type that is gas fuel, liquid and solid. operation of Coal firing will require usage of cool air far bigger while on the contrary operating combustion to use oil fuel or natural gas will use air at high temperature larger ones.

Side that, operation of coal firing also will yield lower flatne temperature and unfavorable stability compared to oil or natural gas, both the things this will cut short age from fire proof stone layer. This situation causes operation of combustion by using coal would less productively is compared to operation of combustion with oil or natural gas. Not productive from the angle of technical for example because :

a. Consumption of association temperature of Product
b. Flame resistant stone layer age or equally rotary kiln productivity meaning cement factory productivity as a whole

Economically can expressed that operation by using coal would less economically is compared to uses oil or natural gas, inter Alia :
a. Rising combustion operating expenses
b. Rising flame resistant stone operating expenses
c. Rising cement production cost as result of degradation of produce of cement

Remembers type and quality of coal in Indonesia very uniform, hence in general can be told that usage productivity of coal in operating combustion at rotary kiln will decline counted 10-20% compared to usage of oil or natural gas.

2. Coal As Component Of Burning In Cement Industry
Coal Characters
Like it is known that coal is a a real heterogeneous solid mixture and there is nature with grade which is different, starts from lignite, sub bitumen, bitumine until anthracite. As solid, coal consisted of gathering of maceral (vitrinite, eksinite and enertinite) and mineral (clay, calcite and others).

Seen from element coal former consisted of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen is rather sulfurs, phosphorus and others. While from the angle of molecule structure, distinguishable to aromatic and aliphatic. Therefore in industry cement, coal is applied as component of burning, hence heat combustion, combustion pickings and combustion pickings it is important to know especially if the things can bother quality of cement which will be yielded.

Visible coal characters with analysis as follows :
a. Proximate analysis
Consisted of :
+ Moist (moisture) which in the form of free moist (free moisture), wafting moist (inherent moisture) and wafting moist (total moisture)
+ Ash content (ash)
+ Carbon (fixed carbon)
+ Matter flies (volatile matter)

b. Ultimate Analysis
Consisted of analysis element : C, H,O, Nitrogen also S and phosphor and Cl

c. Caloric Value
There are two kinds of caloric value, that is :
Caloric value net, that is combustion caloric value is calculated in a state of all water (H2O) in the nature of gas. Gross caloric value, that is combustion caloric value is measured in a state of all water (H2O) in the nature of water.

d. Total Sulfur
Sulfur or brimstone can differ in in coal as mineral pyrite, markasite, Calcium sulfate or brimstone organic which at the combustion will turn into SO2.

e. Dusty Analysis
Dusty happened in coal firing will form oxides as follows SiO2, Al2O3, TiO2, Mn3O4, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O. this ash especially would in mixed solid with klinker and influences quality of cement. However coal ash content in Indonesia usually only ranges from 5% until 20% only.

f. Hardgrove Grindability Index
Be a number which points can easy to difficult to of coal is grind to to become powder fuel. More and more small number, more and more situation firm of coal.

As according to in character, coal generally is divided to four kinds of that is :
+ Anthracite, contains a few volatiles matter
+ Bitumen, contains volatile medium matter
+ Lignite, contains many volatiles matter
+ Peat

If we burn coal with free grate, hence flame length yielded, depends on level of the matter volatile content. Coal with volatile rate matter high, will yield long flame to grate fire and coal with volatile rate matter low, will yield short flame. For the reason anthracite usually is called as with short flaming coal and bitumen as long flaming coal.

However coal will yield different result if burned in the form of smooth coal in rotary kiln. Long flaming coal if burned in rotary kiln as smooth coal will raveled immediately and volatile matter evaporating will be combustible swiftly. While coke particle which have been segregation will have a real big surface area so that coal powder can be combustible quickly. This thing causing long flaming coal in rotary kiln will be combustible only in short area from kiln or equally will yield short flame. Short flaming coal contains a few volatiles matter, if burned in rotary kiln as smooth coal will raveled slowly, so that will be combustible in longer distance.

Thereby, coal so-called short flaming coal if burned as smooth coal in rotary kiln, will yield long flame. operation of Combustion in rotary kiln requires combustion with a real flatness temperature height, because klinkerization process requires material temperature around 1450 0C. side that is higher level flatness temperature will yield heat transfer of larger ones. Both the things this hardly having an effect on in the case of effective and efficiency operation of combustion in rotary kiln. Although anthracite has high caloric value, its use as component of burning in rotary kiln unable to be taken a fancy to, because anthracite yields longer flame with lower relative temperature.

And so do lignite, beside has volatile content matter which is high and heating low value, unwelcome because will yield lower flatness temperature. Bitumen is preferred coal type of its(the usage as component of burning in rotary kiln, because having volatile content matter which is enough, but its(the caloric value high relative.

Therefore bitumen can yield higher level flatne temperature. However bitumen which bigger ash content (effect existence of usual impurities from clay etcetera) or high water content nor taken a fancy, because the things will reduce flatne temperature is side to requires also excess water larger ones. This thing will result the low of effectiveness and operation efficiency of combustion in rotary kiln.

Actually theoretically is expected bituminous coal which clear of non combustible material will yield higher and short flatne temperature compared to fuel oil and natural gas. But at the practice content non combustible material either in the form of ash or moisture cannot be obviated, causing requires operation with excess higher level water and requires primary water (which temperature is low) larger ones.

This thing will reduce flatne temperature is side to enlarges flow rate burning gas resulting shorter of retention time gas in rotary kiln from pre heater system and will reduce heat transfer of rate, meaning will enlarge castaway it is hot passed pre heater gas.

3. Preparation of Coal And Bait System into Kiln
Among all fuels that is generally is used, coal is fuel required a real unitral investment height good to grinding and also bait. Flow elementary sheet from installation of same hamper coal in all storeys.

a. Storage (Stock Pilling)
After in unloading in a factory, coal is kept in a storage warehouse. Main attention of which must be passed to this phase is lessen risk as of LDF ignition and loss (looses) material during storage. Because one of solid fuel character is not homogenize, hence before milled need to be done pre-homogenization, that for example by the way of arrangement of heap and winnowing from storage warehouse. Order FIFO need to be executed here to prevent abundant coal.

b. Primary Crushing
Primary crushing can be done in open circuit or close circuit. Softness of product from primary this crushing depends on to kinds of grinding mill used.

c. Grinding and Drying
For coal having water content under 20%, the draining done at coal mill. For coal which the water content is more than 20%, usually there are additional dryer before coal mill. Coal mill differentiated in two types, that is:
- Pack mill/Tube mill
- Vertical mill, what operated in open circuit and close circuit

Draining process here is dry raw maximum coal come up with inherent its moisture. In operation of system coal this mill which must become main attention is lessen detonation risk caused :
- Coal bait that is is not lancer
- Liquidity of bait causes harsh material (drought) re- from separator, contact direct would with hot weather
- Change of coal water content that is too big
- too Low product water content, far under inherent moisture

The detonation risks enlarged by volatile content matter which is high from coal. Operation of operation coal mill based on softness design of coal which has been considered according to requirement of combustion in rotary kiln.

d. Dirt Arrest
Arrest of coal dirt generally is done with filter or electrostatic presipitator. To lessen losing of material, equipment of this impinger must be taken care of operates in an optimal fashion. Which must be paid attention here is smooth dirt tended to causes reaction of detonation. Coal mixture or air explosive would in certain concentration area. Some experts mentions that international 40-150 g/Nml3 as critical region for the happening of the detonation, usual happened in when start up or equipments stop.

e. Bait System Smooth Coal Into Rotary kiln
System smooth coal bait into distinguishable rotary kiln as follows :
- Direct system
- Semi of indirect system
- Indirect system

At direct system, all coals yielded in grinding mill direct is baited into rotary kiln with dryer air. At flourishing indirect system, coal from mill for a while kept in silo intermediate before baited into rotary kiln. For this system there are two kinds of version which depend on coal water content. What has low water content, dryer air from mill some of hypodermic to rotary kiln as primary air, and some of circulation to mill. when high water content, some of gas from mill is released through equipment of impinges.

At indirect system, all coals from mill in keeping in silo intermediate before baited, and gas from mill is not baited to rotary kiln as primary air, except if wanted.

4. Operation of Usage of Coal At Rotary kiln
In usage of coal as component of burning in operating rotary kiln, there are some specific things that need to be paid attention that is :

a. Primary air Usage
Primary air stands inter Alia as :
- Supporting facilities for transportation for coal hypodermic into rotary kiln
- An equipment of aflame controller

Thereby primary air which temperature is this low, hence combustion air consisted of by primary water and secondary water, will have low relative mixture Einstein characteristic temperature. Therefore actually economically usage of this primary air unable to profit. In operating coal usage, usage of this primary air can range from 15-20% from requirement of combustion air.

b. Usage of Excess Big Water
Based on the reaction kinetics theory, gas fuel and liquid is more re actively with oxygen, compared to oxygen with coal. This thing easy to be understood by coal firing will pass steps as follows :
- Heat transfer from burning zone to coal particle in convection and radiation
- Heat transfer through ash layer having the character of isolator towards oxidation front in conduction
- Chemical reaction between C, S, H2 with H2, CO, H2o and SO2
- CO2, SO2, CO and H2 diffusion from front oxidizes to coal particle exterior
- Packer ash around coal particle is decomposition in terms and mechanical

Therefore to reach perfection of combustion using coal as component of burning is required excess big relative water. With usage of air larger ones this, hence will be given on to problems :
- Hot loss because permeated by excess of the air
- Transfer of temperature between airs and material in kiln unable to perfect, because low relative hot weather resident time

c. Water Content In Coal
Water which there is in coal, either as inherent moisture and also partly small other moisture, it is of course will harm because lessening temperature yielded.

d. Feed Stability
Because coal is fuel in the form of powder hence very difficult to be obtained condition of bait which really stable into kiln. Feed instability this means hot instability in kiln, will result instability of coating as fire proof stone protector. Thereby will result stone age which relative short.

e. Impurities
If cleaning of coal process is not good, hence will be met impurities (like clay). With existence of this impurities, it is of course will confuse number of hot baits into rotary kiln.

5. Clauses Quality Of Coal In Cement Industry
Basically all usable coal types as component of burning in rotary kiln. Inferential that clauses quality of coal required by industry cement of operation unit with effective that is enough is height that is :
a. Combustion value net enough heights, that is gt; 6000 cal/gr
b. Volatile matter medium, maximum 36-42%
c. Total moisture, maximum 12%
d. Maximum ash content 6%
e. Rate sulfur maximum 0,8%
f. Alkalinity in ash, maximum 2%
g. Coal measure (raw coal)

For filter 100 mm = 0%
100 mm - 50 mm = 70%
50 - 25 mm = 25%
25 - 15 mm = 15%
Gets away 15 mm = 0%

h. Various quality is upper at the most 10%
Coal with quality that is is not fulfills clauses is upper will yield lower productivity, clauses upper to be explainable as follows :
- Minimum net combustion value 6000 cal/gr, Volatile matter medium, maximum 36-42%, Maximum ash content 8%, meant that usage of the coal in rotary kiln, can yield targets expected at operation of combustion.
- Maximum moisture total of 12% and maximum ash content of 6% and coal measure according to measure, meant in order not to complicate at operation handling.
- Maximum sulfur rate of 0,8% and alkalinity at maximum ash of 2% is meant to ins order not to invite trouble at operation of rotary kiln and not happened degradation of quality of cement.
- Coal measure and volatile matter also is meant ins order not to invite burning during bait, more and more many containing is prilled smoothness, hence coal heap would flammable.
- Various quality of 10% from values mentioned meant that clauses to reach operation of stable combustion can fulfilled

6. Contamination of Area 
To reach perfection of coal firing, required excess water which relative many, unhappily that with excess higher level water results Einstein characteristic temperature in kiln would lower. Therefore in reality of practice of often is found that combustion reaction process has not taken place perfection, though gas has gone out from suspension pre heater. This thing is pointed with existence of content CO from the gas. Even not happened, especially at the time of heating up, or existence of fluctuation of coal bait that is big enough, flue exit gas also still having colour black. This thing is pointed not merely just CO which implied in the gas, but combustible has not coal.

If gas content CO from gas towards electro precipator as a means of impinger bigger than 0,6%, hence to avoid detonation, equipment of this impinger off would so that thereby there is no dirt arrest, is meaning around 7% from bait raw meal will fly together secretory gas of flue, it is of course generates inter Alia problems :
- Air pollution, either dirt and also gas CO
- Loss because loss of material

combustion reaction process of This coal would having continuation so is all temperature gas ring, results the gas Einstein characteristic temperature is very diffraction height. In condition of like this is not rarely results damage of impeller from fan passed by or damage of expansion joint from ducting or to ducting itself.

contamination risks of Area, losing of this deductible material and equipments damage or avoided inter Alia by the way :
- Labors perfection of combustion in burning zone in kiln by comprehending combustion process kinetics
- Planning of system kiln and good coal hypodermic

The thing is upper to be source of environmental contamination passed flue gas, side that is source of other contamination happened during storage and during operation of exploitation and preparation of coal, also happened leakages generating contamination of area.

Sources : Batubara and Gambut, Ir. Sukandarrumidi, MSc. Phd